Microtubles Essay Example For Free At Magic Help - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2132 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Describe the Structure and Functions of Microtubules Why Can Drugs That Interfere With Microtubule Assembly Be Used as Cancer Therapy? Introduction Microtubules form as a highly organised network of polarised tube filaments from a protein called tubulin. Its regulation is needed for processes such as mitosis, cell migration, cell signalling and cell trafficking. The microtubules themselves are regulated by several kinases and phosphatases via signalling cascades, and concomitantly by interactions with actin cytoskeleton and adhesion sites. Microtubule-targeted drugs (MTDs) constitute a major anticancer therapeutic class having properties of anti-mitotic and anti-angiogenic properties, thereby inhibiting malignant cell growth mainly by altering microtubule dynamics in both cancer and endothelial cells. The key to design of MTDs and the understanding of tumour progression regulators is the identification of proteins regulating the microtubule network. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Microtubles Essay Example For Free At Magic Help" essay for you Create order Cell Morphology and Function As the name implies, microtubules are hollow tubes having an external diameter of roughly 25nm and a cell wall thickness of 5-7nm. One of their functions is to transport organelles (e.g. secretetory vesicles) through the cytoplasm, a particularly important role in nerve cells where axoplasmic flow is required. They also have a critical role in cilia and flagella movement. Microtubules originate from a complex structure known as centrosome. Between cell divisions (figure 1), the centrosome is located at the centre of a cell near the nucleus. Embedded in the centrosome are two cylindrical centrioles, arranged at right angles to each other. At the onset of cell division, a centrosome divides and the two daughter centrosomes move to opposite poles of the nucleus to form a mitotic spindle The functions of microtubules are important to the survival of eukaryotic cells because, along with actin and intermediate filaments, microtubules constitute the cytoskeleton which offers shape a nd strength to the cytoplasm. It is therefore vital that we understand their fundamentals, such as what they are composed of and how their structure is both maintained and destroyed within cells. As mentioned in the introduction, the building blocks microtubules are tubulin. However, only two forms of tubulin, ?-tubulin and ?-tubulin, play a role in the formation of the microtubule structure. When the ? and ?-tubulin bind, a useful subunit called a heterodimer forms. When intracellular conditions favour assembly, tubulin heterodimers assemble into linear protofilaments, which in turn assemble into microtubules. All such assembly is subject to regulation by the cell. [11] The interactions holding ? and ?-tubulin in a heterodimeric complex are strong enough that ? tubulin subunit rarely dissociates under normal conditions. Each tubulin subunit binds two molecules of GTP. One GTP-binding site, located in ?-tubulin, binds GTP irreversibly and does not hydrolyze it, whereas the second site, located on ?-tubulin, binds GTP reversibly and hydrolyzes it to GDP. The second site is called the exchangeable site because GDP can be displaced by GTP. The recently solved atomic structure of the tubulin subunit reveals that the non-exchangeable GTP is trapped at the interface between the ? and ?-tubulin monomers, while the exchangeable GTP lies at the surface of the subunit Microtubules may appear to be stable but they usually oscillate between growth and shortening phases. During growth, heterodimers are added on to the end of a microtubule, and during shrinkage they come off as intact subunits. [11] This active process of assembly and disassembly can be inhibited by a range of drugs that bind to many sites in the ?-tubulin subunit. These drugs prevent mitotic division and ultimately lead to cell death, by means of necrosis and apoptosis. The subunits are aligned end to end into a protofilament. The side-by-side packing of protofilaments forms the wall of t he microtubule. In this model, the protofilaments are slightly staggered so that a-tubulin in one protofilament is in contact with a-tubulin in the neighboring protofilaments. Microtubules and Cancer Therapy The aim of treatment in patients with cancer is cure or, if this is not possible, effective palliation of many cancers present as localised tumour masses, but surgery or radiotherapy often fails to eradicate the disease, which eventually becomes widespread. For this reason, there is a trend to incorporate systemic treatment with local treatment at the time of diagnosis. [3] The basic mechanism of anticancer drugs is the inhibition of cell proliferation processes. However if they fail to selectively target tumour cells over proliferating normal cells, this renders the drug toxic. This particularly arises in the bone marrow, gastrointestinal epithelium and hair follicles. A cytotoxic drug is said to be selective in cancer therapy if it inhibits malignant composite cells undergoing division and concomitantly allows for normal cell proliferation. Anticancer drugs are classified according to their sites of action either during the cell cycle or along the synthetic pathway of cellu lar macromolecules. Some drugs are only effective during part of the cell cycle, which are termed phase-specific drugs, while others are cytotoxic throughout the cell cycle usually called cycle-specific drugs [3]. Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are drugs that inhibit mitosis by binding to the microtubular proteins necessary for spindle formation. They can therefore be classified as phase-specific drugs to be more precise however; they are M-phase specific. The main vinca alkaloids are vincristine, vinblastine and vindesine. They have been used in the treatment of cancer for over many years. It is because of their efficacy that has guaranteed that they remain among the drugs of choice for numerous types of human cancers, â€Å"They are used in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, lymphomas and some solid tumours† [3]. They bind to tubulin and inhibit its polymerisation into microtubules which prevents spindle formation. [14] Microtubules are central to a number of cellular pr ocesses including the formation of the mitotic spindle. It is without a doubt that the destruction of the spindle leads to a loss of chromosome segregation which consequently inhibits cell division causing cell death. Although the cell spindle was an obvious goal for further drug development, research in this area was obsolete until the exciting clinical results of the taxane drugs were reported in the late 1980s [4]. The taxanes paclitaxel and docelatel also bind to tubulin, however these agents, in contrast to the vinca alkaloids, stabilise the spindle and produces mitotic arrest. Thus, microtubule stabilisation leads to similar effects as microtubule disruption. Research in the field has again increased following the observation that agents that bind to tubulin can selectively destroy the arrangement of blood vessels within tumours, causing widespread tumour necrosis [5]. It may be possible that the vinca alkaloids and the taxane drugs also exert part of their tumour-des troying action through an antivascular mechanism. This may depend on targeting endothelial cells rather than tumour cells for drug action. A possible advantage of this approach is that endothelial cells are not transformed and are unlikely to acquire mutations resulting in drug resistance. [6] The destruction of the tumour vasculature also arises through a tubulin-related mechanism. The disorder of the microtubular arrangement impairs the cell function because microtubules are involved in the maintenance of cell shape. The tumour selectivity begins from the unsystematic character of tumour blood vessels. Rouget cells or pericytes are associated abluminally with all vascular capillaries and post-capillary venules. [10] The tumour blood vessels lack these cells along with sustaining smooth muscle which causes them to be feeble. Therefore the endothelial cells lining the tumour blood vessels are more vulnerable to the effects of vinca alkaloids and taxanes. Although contact with these anticancer drugs is experienced by all vascular endothelial cells, it is the vulnerable tumour blood vessels that are damaged the most. This ultimately leads to necrosis of tumour cells that were reliant on the blood vessels. One problem seen in these studies is the survival of cancer cells at the periphery of the tumour [7]. These are nourished from the blood vessels of the normal neighboring tissue and are therefore not affected by the damage of blood vessels in the tumour. These tumour cells are likely to increase in number again. For that reason, it is doubtful that these anticancer drugs will be effective unless given in combination with additional therapies. This may be strikingly more successful than single drugs, for example in the treatment of some cancers such as Hodgkins disease. [3] The shortcoming in previous clinical trials on agents targeting tubulin was the rejection of potentially useful agents because interest was more centered on toxicity and survival of drugs, rather than the action or effects of drugs on blood vessels. The breakthrough of new antivascular treatments would be an essential addition to cancer therapy; hence it is these agents that are presently most fascinating to scientists. Other Drugs That Inhibit Function of Microtubules There are more than thirty drugs in the past or in present clinical development. [13] In order to maintain a reasonable size for the following sections, only a few of the more fascinating drugs will be discussed. Some that where not mentioned previously include: Taxol an anti-cancer drug, stabilises microtubules Colchicine binds tubulin and blocks polymerisation. Microtubules depolymerise at high colchicine concentration. Nocodazole causes de-polymerisation of microtubules. Actinomycin antibiotic able to halt cancer, not widely used as it is highly toxic The Microtubule Network as a Target for Therapeutic Agents The various M-phase specific drugs act by targeting different parts of the heterodimer. To date, three binding areas have been acknowledged: the colchicine site close to the ?/? interface, the region where the vinca alkaloids bind, and the taxane binding pocket. [13] Colchicine, currently a medication for acute gout, also inhibits cell division and has therefore previously been used in cancer therapy. It binds to a site near the ? and ?-tubulin interface within the microtubule, blocking microtubule polymerisation [15]. However, its high toxicity prevents its use for current cancer therapy. Vinca alkaloids inhibit microtubule assembly by cross-linking at the inter-dimer interface; they sterically distort the protofilament and induce tubulin to form alternate spiral polymers [16]. The mechanism of action of taxanes is quite different from that of the other two, for it promotes the assembly of microtubules, resulting in highly stable, non-functional polymers. Taxanes bind at the M loop on the ?-subunit, stabilising lateral contacts between protofilaments [17]. Antimitotic agents that interact with microtubule components are of interest for the insights they can provide into the roles of microtubules in cells and the subtleties of tubulin structure and also for their potential activity in the treatment of human neoplastic diseases. A variety of bioassays have been used to identify new antitubulin agents and new techniques have been developed to further understand their biological potency and mechanistic basis at the molecular level. Drug Combinations Although M-phase specific drugs are remarkable in that it prevents further malignant growth, the administration of combinations of drugs given intermittently often produces better results than more continues treatment with a single drug. The rationale is that a combination of drugs with different toxic effects and affecting different biochemical pathways has anti-tumour activity without addictive toxicity. [3] However, a large number of antimitotic drugs are currently under development, this implies that microtubules are still a very worthwhile target for anticancer therapies. Bibliography [1] Gillian Pocock, Christopher D. Richards. Human Physiology: The Basis of Medicine (Oxford Core Texts). Oxford University Press; 3Rev Ed edition (Jan 2006). p 23 [2] https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/cell_cycle.html [3] Michael J. Neal, Medical Pharmacology at a Glance, Blackwell Publishing; 5th Edition (Aug 2005), p92-93 [4] Rowinski, E.K., Cazenave, L.A., Donehower, R.C. (1990) Taxol: a novel investigational antimicrotubule agent. J Natl Cancer Inst 82, 1247-1259. [5] Dark, G.G., Hill, S.A., Prise, V.E., Tozer, G.M., Pettit, G.R. and Chaplin, D.J. (1997) Cancer Res 57, 1829-1834. [6] Antivascular therapy: a new approach to cancer treatment. British Medical Journal, March 27, 1999   by A J Hayes, L Y Li, M E Lippman [7] Zhao, S., Moore, J.V., Waller, M.L., McGown, A.T., Hadfield, J.A., Pettit, G.R. and Hastings, D.L. (1999) European J Nuclear Medicine 26, 231-238. [8] https://www.ba-education.demon.co.uk/for/science/dnaphotos/dnaphoto.html [9 ] https://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookmito.html [10].https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrievedb=PubMedlist_uids=8915187dopt=Abstract [11] https://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/studies/invertebrates/microtubules.html [12] Harvey Lodish, Arnold Berk, Lawrence S. Zipursky, Paul Matsudaira, David Baltimore, James Darnell. Molecular Cell Biology, W. H. Freeman; 5th edition (2003) p1036-1035 [13] Jordan, A., Hadfield, J.A., Lawrence, N.J. and McGown, A.T. (1998) Tubulin as a target for anticancer drugs: agents which interact with the mitotic spindle. Med. Res. Rev. p18 [14] H.P. Rang, M. Maureen Dale, James M. Ritter, Philip Moore, Pharmacology, Churchill Livingstone; 5th edition (31 Mar 2003), p 704 [15] Downing, K.H. and Nogales, E. New insights into microtubule structure and function from the atomic model of tubulin. (1998) Eur. Biophys J 27, 431-436. [16] Wilson, L., Jordan, M.A., Morse, A. and Margolis, R.L. (1982) Journal of Molecular Biology 159, 125-149. [17] Snyder, J.P., Nettles, J.H., Cornett, B., Downing, K.H. and Nogales, E. (2001) Potential for self-assembly and microtubule interaction 98, 5312-5316.

Literary Analyzes Of Young Goodman Brown - 1746 Words

Literary analyzes of Young Goodman Brown Young goodman brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne is a story about a normal man that ventures into the forest to meet an old man who attempts to tempt him into going deeper into the woods to worship the devil. After the old man convinces him that everyone that he loves and respects is going to the devil’s ceremony he gives in. In Young Goodman Brown, Hawthorne effectively uses the personality and psychology of the Characters along with symbolism to portray the theme that putting one s faith in others leads to weakness. The Characters in Young Goodman Brown are meant to represent society as a whole. They show how sin can tempt any individual whose faith is still developing. D. M. Mckeithan writes in her†¦show more content†¦(95) The old man uses an everybody is doing it approach to encourage Goodman Brown to attend a ceremony to worship the Devil. The old man shows the people Goodman Brown respected most in his community to degrade his faith. As Goodman Brown loses faith in others, he loses faith in himself. Mckeithan continues to say, â€Å"The Minister of Salem Village, Deacon Gookin, Goody Closyse, and Faith were all good in spite of what Goodman Brown eventually came to think of them (96). These are people that were supposedly more spiritually mature than Goodman Brown. He relied on their faith to keep his strong because his faith in God was still new and not fully developed. The psychology of Goodman Brown plays a major rule in his lack of faith because his lack of self esteem allows his desires overcome his reason and morality. Goodman Brown’s conflicts of interest are represented throughout story through the characters. All his evil desires are his id and his reason for avoiding his sin such as the views that his society will have on him is his ego. Levy said in his essay â€Å"The Problem of Faith in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†Ã¢â‚¬ , â€Å"His submission to evil suggests that the demands of the id have overtaken the ego† (379). When the highly respected people in his community gave inShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Ambiguity in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown1587 Words   |  7 PagesThe Ambiguity in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†      Ã‚  Ã‚     The literary critics agree that there is considerable ambiguity in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown.† This essay intends to illustrate the previous statement and to analyze the cause of this ambiguity.    Henry James in Hawthorne, when discussing â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† comments on how imaginative it is, then mentions how allegorical Hawthorne is, and how allegory should be expressed clearly:    I frankly confess that I haveRead MoreMy Psychoanalytic Views of Two Short Stories1454 Words   |  6 Pagesradical, when put into life situations they actually make perfect sense. 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Cultural difference between US China Free Essays

The relative differences in the American and Chinese business background may well predict how transaction costs will be evaluated. On the part of the Chinese business criterion, it seems that the contrasting attitude of their business scheme may define a larger cost in trade investments for the American counterparts. The promising good trade partnership between American companies doing business with its Chinese segments may bring huge monetary concerns on the part of the former. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural difference between US China or any similar topic only for you Order Now The most significant attribute in the Chinese business core is the fact that their business structure is purely based on experience. This is very much evident since most of the companies are family-based businesses. As a result, there is no exact business trend that will make the companies adhere to the normal business plan as compared to the companies in the United States. This fact contributes largely to the aspect of limiting the flow of investment within a specific domain of the family owned business. One disadvantage when it comes to costs is that an American company may not be able to induce its influence on the transaction if they are to deal with the Chinese based companies. The structured and well organized scheme employed by American companies may not be useful at all since the transaction will purely be based on the way the Chinese handle its business. The unpredictability of the financial aspect might take its toll in the American company’s investments. These will likely to happen even if the labor and commodity cost in china is very cheap. Also, there is not even a comparison of the Chinese and U. S. factory labor costs because reliable statistics from the Asian giant don’t exist (News Analysis). This is a somewhat big drawback if the American company needs to assess the appropriate wage that it should set aside from its capital. Another big concern that will predict a very large cost discrepancy would be in the aspect of formal agreement. The Chinese tend to use fewer contracts when involving other sources of investment. This is very contrasting to the attitude of American companies where everything is settled on paper even before the activity proceeds. The Chinese companies tend to rely on trusted partnerships and loyalty of their background workforce for their own survival in the trade world. This could equate to a very high cost for the American company especially if the agreement will not be implemented according to the drafted plan. It is very possible that one segment of the production line will experience problems in business processing. Such scenario will eventually take effect on both the Chinese and American company in partnership. However, the larger cost will be incurred on the American company’s account. This is so because of the large dependency in a specified business plan. Moreover, there will be a waste in monetary values together with the production time frame just to take full recovery of the lost trade opportunity. This is the most discouraging factor when it comes to unspecified productivity dilemmas. The global economy is starting to implement a rather large opportunity for all markets. Apparently, because of this global merchandising capacity of various countries, it would be very much accepted that the efficiency and survival of a certain business lies directly on the trading partners where it seems to be compatible with. On the case of the American and Chinese business relationship, it should first consider how the financial cost of partnership will eventually influence each other’s trading posts. A complete analysis of the cost attributes should be taken into consideration. Apparently, the behavior of Chinese business is very difficult to understand (Chen, 1999-2007). References: Chen, Ming-Jer. 1999-2007. Inside Chinese Business. QuickMBA. Retrieved May 8, 2007 from http://www. quickmba. com/mgmt/intl/china/. News Analysis. 2004. Just How Cheap Is Chinese Labor?. Businessweek. Retrieved May 8, 2007 form http://www. businessweek. com/bwdaily/dnflash/dec2004/nf2004122_6762_db039. htm. How to cite Cultural difference between US China, Papers

Photographs objectify essay Example For Students

Photographs objectify essay Photographs objectify: they turn an event or a person into some thing that can be possessed. And photographs are a species of alchemy, for all that they are prized as a transparent account of reality (p. 81). Photographs can never really be objective records of history; photographers inject their own artistic attitudes into their work. Photographers have been immortalizing warfare with their cameras since the time of the Crimean War. Back then, it was impossible to create objective photographs, not that anyone would have tried. The British sent out Roger Fenton to present the war to the public as a dignified all-male group outing (p.50). Because it took several seconds to capture a single picture, it was impossible for Fenton to photograph actual combat, and the government forbade him from photographing any dead, ill or maimed soldiers. In addition, he had to pose his subjects, so the soldiers were aware of their being photographed. It was virtually impossible for Fenton to create candid, realistic photos that reflected the true lives led by the soldiers; he could only produce artful photographs that reinforced the attitudes presented to the British public by the government. But even after photography became more practical at the time of the Civil War, photographers still manipulated the composition of their photographs. Photographers like Alexander Gardner and Timothy O Sullivan still captured actual soldiers and actual battlefields, but they continued to use artistic license to create images that were more compelling to their viewers. Photographers posed dead soldiers and manipulated the compositions of their work, even though technology had progressed to the point that staging their photos was unnecessary. They still held onto the belief that to photograph was to compose (with living subjects, to pose) and the desire to arrange elements in the picture did not vanish because the subject was immobilized, or immobile (p. 53). With the invention of motion pictures, one would think that war would finally be recorded as it really happened, but this still wasnt the case. Soldiers reenacted battle charges and other events for the benefit of the cameramen. In 1898 Roosevelts Rough Riders charged up San Juan Hill a second time, after the battle, because the actual battle charge was deemed insufficiently dramatic. Films were also shot again if the original reel was too violent or too terrible. Historical records were still being fabricated, even though new technology made such falsifications increasingly difficult. With the advent of the motion picture, photographers became somewhat obsolete in their office of recording history. Yet photographs still hold power. Photography is selective; it is always the image that someone chose; to photograph is to frame, and to frame is to exclude (p. 46). Photographers in more recent times use their photographs to make statements about war. In the Vietnam War, photographers criticized the war with their photographs, to reflect and support the criticism expressed by the American public. However, the viewers of such photos still seem to forget about the photographers that are behind the photos, framing them to fit their purposes. A picture may be worth so many thousands of words, but those words are not and never will be objective. The problem is not that people remember through photographs, but that they remember only the photographs (p. 89). Photographs taken today in Iraq will be found in textbooks thirty years from now. Our children and the generations that follow will look at those pictures and read the stories that go along with them, but they will probably retain the memory of the photograph over the words found in the text. .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .postImageUrl , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:hover , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:visited , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:active { border:0!important; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:active , .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0 .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0e0d169434dd1f3a427f7eea5c0ed3d0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Invention of Photography - The Daguerreotype EssayPhotographs have been used to depict warfare for centuries now. Photographers like Roger Fenton and Timothy OSullivan recorded the so-called realities of war. While their photographs were not completely true to life, they still hold a piece of the truth. Fentons photographs show the very idealistic side of the Crimean War, which did exist, if only in the rarest of moments, and OSullivans work showed the brutal realities of war-time epidemics and death on a battlefield. Even if his photographs were not photos of soldiers exactly as theyd fallen, they were photographs of real dead soldiers that had died real deaths, from real bullets or real illnesses. According to Sontag, a painting or drawing is judged a fake when it turns out not to be by the artist to whom it had been attributed. A photographà  is judged a fake when it turns out to be deceiving the viewer about the scene it purports to depict (p. 46). This is because people assume that photographs are not art, or that they can be both art and historical fact simultaneously. This is impossible. No matter how advanced technology becomes, it will always be impossible to produce a completely objective photograph; the photographer will inevitably shine through, in the subject matter, in the composition, in everything; a photographer becomes part of his work, and that work therefore becomes art. Photographers have not been recording warfare for centuries-they have been creating art surrounding warfare, and in doing so, they have captured the true essences of that warfare.

Kirkpatrick Model of Training free essay sample

Donald Kirkpatricks 1975 book Evaluating Training Programs defined his originally published ideas of 1959, thereby further increasing awareness of them, so that his theory has now become arguably the most widely used and popular model for the evaluation of training and learning. Kirkpatricks four-level model is now considered an industry standard across the HR and training communities. The four levels of training evaluation model was later redefined and updated in Kirkpatricks 1998 book, called Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. LevelEvaluation Type (what is measured)Evaluation Description Characteristics 1 Reaction-reaction evaluation is how the trainees felt about the training or learning experience 2 Learning-learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge before and after 3 Behavior-behavior evaluation is the extent of applied learning back on the job implementation 4 Results -results evaluation is the effect on the business or environment by the trainee evelevaluation type (what is measured)evaluation description and characteristicsexamples of evaluation tools and methodsrelevance and practicability 1 reaction-reaction evaluation is how the delegates felt, and their personal reactions to the training or learning experience, for example: -did the trainees like and enjoy the training?

Private statistical database The WritePass Journal

Private statistical database Abstract Private statistical database Abstract1. Introduction  2. Body2.1. Definition of statistical databases 2.2. Privacy in statistical databases2.3. Methods for providing private statistical databases2.3.1 Perturbation methods2.3.1.1 Input perturbation2.3.1.2 Output perturbation 2.3.2 Query restriction method 2.3.2.1 Query set size control method2.3.2.2 Query set overlap method2.3.2.3 Auditing2.3.2.4 Partitioning2.3.2.5 Cell suppression2.3.3 Differential privacy3. Conclusion References Related Abstract As the statistical databases consist of important and sensitive information, the preservation of the privacy in these databases is of extremely significance. Despite the complexity of the statistical databases’ protection, there are diverse sorts of mechanisms which can keep out the confidential data. This report discusses methods as data perturbations, query restriction methods and differential privacy which provide privacy in the statistical databases. Keywords: statistical databases, privacy, input perturbation, output perturbation, differential privacy. 1. Introduction Nowadays, there is a wide-spread access to data. Having a lot of advantages to omnipresent access of information, there is also the possibility to break the privacy of individuals. In the statistical databases, personal data with very large number of individuals is stored. The statistical databases contain multiple statistical information. They give to their users the ability to acquire this information and also to protect the privacy of individuals. However, supporting security in the statistical databases against the revealing of confidential data is complicated and ambitious task. This problem of privacy in the statistical databases has expanded in the recent years. This report will examine the main methods for providing privacy in the statistical databases.   2. Body 2.1. Definition of statistical databases A statistical database is a set of data units which has permissive access to the statistical information connected to these data parts. The statistical database could be described as a database system which allows to its users to obtain only aggregate statistics for a subset of items introduced in the database [1]. The statistical database posses limited querying interface which is restricted to operations such as sum, count, mean, etc. The statistical database also could be defined as query responsive algorithm which permits the users to access the content of the database through statistical queries [2]. The statistical database is concerned with the multidimensional datasets and is related to the statistical summarizations of the data sets’ dimensions. The statistical database is mainly oriented to socio-economic databases which are normally the field of statisticians. An example of statistical database is the census data which is linked to collection of information about the assessment of the population trends. Another example of statistical database is the economic database which includes statistics for the industries’ sales and income or statistics for the use and production of diverse products [3]. 2.2. Privacy in statistical databases The privacy can be described as the right to specify what type of information about individuals or items is allowed to be shared with others. The benefits from analyzing the statistical database are very significant but the release of the information from this database could cause a lot of problems, troubles and damages. Thus, one of the main aims of the statistical database is to ensure privacy of the information. To be an effective statistical database, it should protect all its records [4]. As the statistical database should provide statistical information, it should not disclose private information on the items or individuals it refers to. The releasing of a statistical data may offend the privacy rights of the individuals. Therefore, the statistical database should follow some ethical and legal behavior to defend the individuals’ records. For legal, ethical and professional grounds, the users of the statistical database are not authorized to receive special information on individual records.   The statistical database should protect the sensitive information allowing its users to get aggregate information. The restricted access should be permitted either from the point of view of the groups of people to whom this information is available or from the point of view of the certain aspects of this information. However, it is possible sometimes when statistics are correlated, the sensitive information to be inferred. If a combination of aggregate queries is used to obtain information, we say that the information in the database is compromised and therefore the database is also compromised [5]. The main duty for the privacy of statistical database is to find appropriate methods which could ensure that no queries are sufficient to infer the values of the protected records. 2.3. Methods for providing private statistical databases The following methods and techniques are used to secure the privacy in statistical databases. 2.3.1 Perturbation methods There are two main perturbation methods for preserving privacy in statistical databases. The first one is the input perturbation where the primary data is randomly modified and the results are calculated based on this modified data. The second perturbation method is the output perturbation which computes the results from the queries exactly from the actual data [6]. In other words, the input perturbation is detected when the records are computed on the queries while the output perturbation is applied to the query result after computing it on the original data. The perturbation methods look for accomplishment of the masking of item or individual’s confidential information while trying to maintain the basic aggregate relationships of the statistical database. One of the main aims of these methods is to ‘conceal’ particular confidential record. It is also necessary to notice that the perturbation techniques are not encryption techniques which first modify the data, t hen usually send it, receive it and finally decrypt it to the original data. The primary difficulty of these methods is to assure that the introduced error is within the satisfactory limits. There is an exchange between the level of protection that could be attained and the variance of the presented perturbation. 2.3.1.1 Input perturbation The fundamental idea behind this method is that the result which is returned by the queries is based on a perturbed data. This means that the primary data in the statistical database is not used to create query results. One side that is necessary to be taken into account is the duplicated database. This database, which is used to turn back to results, must maintain the similar statistical characteristics as the original database. This technique introduces random noise to the confidential information and thus protects the data. Adding statistical noise in the database makes the input perturbation an important method in the enhancement of the privacy. The original database is generally changed into modified or perturbed statistical database which is afterwards accessible to the users. The input perturbation permits the users to access the necessary aggregate statistical information from the whole database when it makes changes to the original data. Therefore this process helps to protect the records [7]. The records of the database contain values that are variations of their adequate values in the true database. As a whole this method tries to minimize the severe bias in the query results by allocating the corresponding bias in the data so that it could cancel out in the huge query sets. In the input perturbation, the data is perturbed for instance via swapping attributes or adding the random noise before this data releases the whole statistical database. There are two well-known subcategories in the input perturbation. The probability distribution interprets the statistical database as a sample from a given data that has a certain probability distribution [1]. The main purpose is to transform the primary statistical database with a different sample which is from the same probability distribution. This input perturbation creates a substitute database from the original one. This method is also called data swapping.   The second subcategory is the fixed – data perturbation where the values of the records in the statistical database are perturbed only once and for all the records. Since the perturbation process is done only once, the repeated queries have consistent and logical values. This perturbation also constructs an alternative database as the probability distribution. This alternative database is created by changing the value of every record by a randomly produced perturbation value. The fixed – data perturbation could be applied to both numerical and categorical data. 2.3.1.2 Output perturbation The output perturbation differs notably from the input perturbation. In the input perturbation, the data is specified by all statistical features of the database. As longs as in the output perturbation, the perturbed results are directly introduced to the users [8]. Another difference is that in the output perturbation, the problem with the bias is not as harsh as in the input perturbation. This is because the queries are based on the original values but not on the perturbed ones. The output perturbation method is based on calculation of the queries’ responses on the statistical databases. This method adds the variance to the result. The result is produced on the original database however the noise is added to the result before to return it to the users. As the noise is not added to the database, this method generates results that include less bias that the input perturbation. It is necessary to note that if the noise is random then this noise could be reduced by performing th e same query over and over again.   Some limitations exist. For example if there is very large number of queries to the statistical database, the amount of the noise added to the results should be also very large [9]. The output perturbation has pretty low storage and computational overhead [10]. This method is rather easy to carry out because it does not influence the query process. The output perturbation consists of different approaches as random sample queries, varying output perturbation and rounding. The random sample queries technique shows a technique where a sample is created from the query set itself. The random sample queries method denies the intruder accurate control which covers the queries records [11]. One drawback of this method is that it could not ensure enough certainty for users to prevent the confidential data. However, the random sample queries may present precise statistics for number of records. The USA Census Bureau for example mainly works with this technique to restrict the inference in their statistics records. Every reported query is founded upon a gratuitously chosen subpopulation of the query set. The USA Census Bureau is satisfied with this method and applies it very successfully in its activity. The second approach of the output perturbation is the varying – output perturbation [1]. This method is suitable for the SUM, CO UNT and PERCENTILE queries. The varying – output perturbation presents a varying perturbation to the data where random variables are used to calculate the answer to a variant of a given query. The last approach of output perturbation is the rounding where all queries are computed based on unbiased data. Afterwards the results are transformed before they are returned to the users. There are three types of rounding – systematic rounding, random rounding and controlled rounding [1]. It is advisable to combine the rounding method with methods to provide more privacy in the statistical database. 2.3.2 Query restriction method The main idea of this method is even if the user does not want to receive deterministically right answers, these answers should be exact, for example numbers. As these answers to queries give the users forceful information, it might be important to deny the answers of some queries at certain stage to prevent the disclosure of a confidential data from the statistical database. The type or the number of queries that a user puts to the statistical database is restricted. This method discards a query which can be compromised. Nevertheless, the answers in the query restrictions are always precise. It could be concluded that the restricted group of the accepted queries considerably reduces the real usefulness of the statistical database. This method provides a protection for the statistical database by limiting the size of the query set, by controlling the overlap among the consecutive queries, by maintaining audit of any answered queries for every user and by making the small-sized cells inaccessible to users of the statistical database. There are five subcategories of the query restriction method – query set size control, query set overlap control, auditing, partitioning and cell suppression [1]. 2.3.2.1 Query set size control method The query set size based method declines the answers to queries which have an influence on a small set of records. Fellegi [12] sets lower and upper limits for the size of the query answer which are based on the characteristics of the database. If the number of the returned records is not within these two limits, the request for the information could not be accepted and therefore the query answer may be denied. The query set size control method can be explained by the following equation [12]:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  K ≠¤Ã‚   |C|   ≠¤Ã‚   L – K,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1) where K is a parameter set by the database administrator, |C| is the size of the query set and L is the number of the entities in the database. The parameter K must satisfy the condition [12]:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   0 ≠¤   K   ≠¤Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (2) The main advantage of this method is its easy implementation. However, its robustness is low so it is advisable to use it in a combination with other methods. 2.3.2.2 Query set overlap method The query set overlap method permits only queries which have small overlap with formerly answered queries. Thus, the method controls the overlap over the queries. The lowest overlap control restrains the queries responses which have more than the predetermined number of records in common with every previous query [3]. This surveillance is valuable in the defense against  Ã‚   the trackers as a compromise tool. In spite is all, this method has some drawbacks [13]. This query set overlap control is not enough effective when several users together try to compromise the statistical database. As well as the statistics for both a set and its subset are hard released which limits the efficiency of the database. 2.3.2.3 Auditing The third subcategory of the query restriction method is the auditing. It requires the maintenance of up-to-date logs of all queries which are made by every user. It also requires a continuous check-up for potential disclosure whenever a new query is published. One main advantage of this method is that it permits the statistical database to support the users with unperturbed data and ensure that the response will not be compromised. A disadvantage of the auditing method is its excessive CPU and the requirements for the storage and processing of the collected logs [1]. 2.3.2.4 Partitioning The partitioning method groups the individual entities of a population in a number of reciprocally excessive subsets, known as atomic populations. Therefore, the records are stored in groups which consist of predetermined number of records [4]. A query is permitted only to the entire groups, but not to a subset of a group. The statistical features of these atomic populations form the raw materials which are attainable to the database users. While the atomic populations include exactly one individual entity, a high level of protection can be achieved. A research, taken by Schlà ¶rer, found that there is an emergence of the large number of atomic populations with only one entity. The result of this will be a considerable information loss when these populations are clustered. One major drawback of this method is the retrieved value of the statistical information. When the database is partitioned, the statistical data is toughly obscured. This restricts the flow of potential wanted stat istical information by the users. In reality, the users may not have the chance to acquire the desired information. 2.3.2.5 Cell suppression The cell suppression method is frequently used by the census bureau for information which is published in tabular form. This technique protects the tabular data from a compromise. The main idea is to conceal the cells that can lead to a disclosure of a confidential data. In this way, the cell suppression minimizes the suppressed cells with private information. These cells are called primary suppressions. The other cells with non confidential data, which may be a threat and lead to a disclosure, should also be suppressed. These cells with non private information are called complementary suppressions. These complementary suppressions provide a pre-defined level of protection to the primary cells. 2.3.3 Differential privacy As Dalenims (1977) points out that an access to a statistical database should not be allowed to a user to acquire information about an individual’s record which cannot be found out without the access of the database. This form of privacy is difficult to be achieved because of the auxiliary information. The auxiliary information is information which is available to the adversary without an access to the statistical database [14].   For example, let presume that one’s exact weight is considered as highly sensitive information and revealing this information is regarded as a privacy break. Next, it is assumed that the database provides the average weights of people of different nationalities. An adversary of the statistical database who has an access to the auxiliary information, that a particular British person is 10 kilogram thinner than the average French person, can learn the British person’s weight, as long as anyone gaining only the auxiliary information with out having an access to the average weights, learns not much [15]. This leads to the application of the concept of differential privacy. In spite of the fact that the differential privacy does not exclude a bad disclosure, it ensures the individual that his or her data will not be included in the database that produces it. The differential privacy is defined as one of the successful methods of providing privacy for the statistical databases.   The basic description of the differential privacy is that it is focused on providing ways to increase the accuracy of the queries from the statistical database while trying to minimize the chances of recognizing its records. The differential privacy is a randomized algorithm which accepts the database as input and generates an output [15]. A more precise definition of this method is the following formulation: A randomized function K that gives Ï µ-differential privacy if for the databases D1 and D2, which only differ on at most one element and all S⊆ Range (K), Pr [K (D1) ∈ S] ≠¤ exp (Ï µ) x Pr [K (D2) ∈ S]  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3) When this function K satisfies the above definition, it can ensure an individual that though this individual removes his or her data from the database, the outputs cannot become indicatively more or less acceptable. The differential privacy strives to guarantee an adjustment to the statistical disclosure control’s problem. The differential privacy aims to publicly let out statistical information relating to a set of individuals without allowing a compromise for privacy.   This method demands that there is an inherently the same probability distribution on the produced results. This probability distribution should be independent of whether each individual chooses or not the data set [16].   This process is done indirectly as at the same time it addresses all potential forms of harm and good by concentrating upon the probability of every given output of a privacy method and upon the ways for changes of the probability when any row is added or deleted from the database. The statistical database is usually developed to reach social goals and the expanded participation in the database allows more precise analysis. Therefore, the differential privacy assures the support for the social goals by guaranteeing every individual that there is a quite little risk by connecting to the statistical database. The differential privacy has some advantages. Firstly, this privacy preserving method is independent of any extra and auxiliary information including also other databases which are available to the adversaries. Secondly, the differential privacy is easily implemented through the using of rather sample and general techniques. The last advantage is that the differential privacy usually permits very accurate analysis. 3. Conclusion To conclude, the statistical database provides to users statistical information for values which are based on various criteria. The field of the statistical database is highly important because it encompasses a broad variety of application areas which in principle deal with great amount of data. This statistical database may consist of confidential data which should be protected from unauthorized user access. It is very important to provide a precise statistical database with professional, legal and ethical responsibilities for privacy protection of the individual records. Providing security in the statistical database proves to be a complicated task. There is no single solution to this problem. Therefore, numerous methods and techniques are suggested to be used to ensure privacy in the statistical database. The analysis presented in the report shows that the perturbation methods, the query restriction methods and the differential privacy are clearly among the most promising methods for the private statistical database. References 1.   N. Adam and J. Wortmann, Security – control Methods for Statistical Databases: A comprehensive Study. ACM Computing Surveys.   21 (1989). 2.   I. Dinur and K Nissim, Revealing Information while Preserving Privacy – In proceeding of twenty-second. ACM SIGMOD – SIGACT-SIGART Symposium on Principle of Database Systems. (2003) p. 202-210. 3. A. Shoshani, OLAP and Statistical Databases: Similarities and Differences. (1997) p. 187 4.   C. Guynes, Protecting Statistical Databases: A matter of privacy. Computer and Society. 19 (1989). 5.   Z. Michalewicz, J-J Li and K-W Chen, A Genetic Approach for Statistical Database Security.13 (1990) p. 19 6. C. Dwork, F. McSherry, Calibrating Noise to Sensitivity in Private Data Analysis. Springer. 3876 (2006). 7. R. Wilson and P. Rosen, Protecting Data through Perturbation Techniques: The impact on knowledge discovery in database. Journal of Management. 14 (2003) p.13. 8. T. Wang and L. Liu, Output Privacy in Data Mining. ACM Transactions Database Systems. 36 (2011) p.11 9. S. Chawla, C. Dwork et al, Toward Privacy in Public Databases. Theory of Cryptography Conference. (2005). 10.   J. Schatz, Survey of Techniques for Securing Statistical Database. University of California at Davis 11. D. Denning, Secure Statistical Databases with Random Sample Queries. ACM Transactions on Database Systems. 5 (1980) p. 292 12.   I. Fellegi, On the question of statistical confidentiality. Journal of American Statistical Association. 67 (1972), 7-18. 13. D. Dobkin, A. Jones and R. Lipton, Secure Databases: Protection Against User Influence. ACM Transactions on Database Systems. 4 (1979). 14.   C. Dwork, Differential Privacy. 33rd International Colloquium on Automata, Languages and Programming, part II (ICALP). Springer Verlang. (2006). 15.   C. Dwork, Ask a better question, get a better answer – a new approach to private data analysis. 11th International Conference on Database Theory (ICDT ). Springer Verlang (2007). 16.   C. Dwork, Differential privacy in New Settings. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. (2010).

Watching TV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Watching TV - Essay Example For that reason, it keeps people more aware of their surroundings making people smarter when it comes to solving societal issues. Therefore, in my opinion TV makes people to be intelligent. This argument is in agreement with Steven Johnson essay† watching T.V makes you smarter.† The choice of material that people choose to watch on television is what matter in relation to the intelligence it is going to add on that person. For example, shows like Simpson have an entertaining aspect while at the same time has quality of morals and knowledge that it shares with it viewers. For that reason, most people who spend their time watching the Simpson get to grasp knowledge what the show is trying to bring out (Johnson 170). Furthermore, the shows targets the average American so promoting the life of a middleclass American. By so doing, it encourages individuals who watch the show because they know that there is a person who understands what they are facing each day, hence adding and intellectual advantage. Moreover, television has its advantages when it comes to the group of people it wants to target. The television shows that are aired have an age bracket meaning that the content that is aired for children adds some intellectual value. For example, tellytubbies and other cartoons act as a good method to measure the children intellectual capability to establish whether they understand the content. Thus, although the content is entertaining it also grabs the attention of the children meaning that at the end of the show they will have achieved something. Furthermore, television acts as an intellectual advantage because it promotes many possibilities such as higher learning, as well as, providing entertainment (Johnson 175). For example, when watching a documentary a person get to understand many thing and by seeing the visual pictures on the documentary makes them more alert; hence, acting as a great source of gathering